The marine extractive industry is a large sector that specialises in the commercial exploitation of non-living resources extracted from the oceans, the seabed and beneath the seafloor. These include hydrocarbons, minerals, metals, and water. This industry is divided into several segments, each with unique characteristics and extraction methods. Globally, the top extracting countries include China - a major player in offshore oil and gas and marine mining, with significant investments in the South China Sea and beyond; the United States - a leading producer of offshore oil and gas, with major operations in the Gulf of Mexico and Alaska; Australia - a significant producer of marine minerals, including iron ore, copper, and gold, with major operations off the coast of Western Australia; Norway - a leading producer of offshore oil and gas, with major operations in the North Sea; and the United Arab Emirates - the country with the largest desalination installed capacity.
Marine non-living resources have been a significant sector in the EU Blue Economy for many years. Most of the EU’s domestic oil and gas is extracted offshore. Out of 15 518 kilotonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) extracted from EU waters in 2023, 67% was gas and 33 % oil. 74% of total EU offshore production was extracted in the North Sea and Atlantic by the Netherlands (6 146 ktoe, -21.3% compared to 2022), Denmark (4 700 ktoe) and Germany (706 ktoe). 12.2% was extracted in the Mediterranean (mainly by Italy with 1 645 ktoe), 11.5% in the Black Sea (mainly Romania, +96% from 2022) and 1.8% in the Baltic Sea (by Poland, 282 ktoe). As required by the Offshore Safety Directive [1] the 14 Member States active in the EU offshore oil and gas extractive industry reported a total of 313 offshore oil and gas installations in EU waters in 2023, i.e. two more installations than in the previous year. 53% of these offshore installations (164) were in the Mediterranean Sea, 43% (136) in the North Sea and Atlantic, 3% (9) in the Black Sea and 1% (4) in the Baltic Sea. 20% of these installations were manned, fixed platforms and 80% were unattended or non-production installations[2].
Over the past decade, the mature offshore oil and gas sector has experienced a decline, following the ambitious EU decarbonisation goals and net-zero emission targets. Overall oil and gas production decreased from 16 264 ktoe in 2022 to 15 518 ktoe in 2023 (4.6% loss of production, compared to 11% decrease between 2021 and 2022)[3]. As the industry is engaged in this transition, new opportunities for sustainable marine mining are gradually opening. Oceanographic research can facilitate the sustainable exploitation of mineral resources from the seafloor, by providing critical data and insights on its environmental, social, and economic implications, as well as approaches to protect and restore vulnerable marine ecosystems.
Picture of Oil and gas platform in a bay of Valletta, Malta
For the purpose of this analysis, the Marine non-living resources sector includes the following sub-sectors:
- Oil and gas includes the offshore production of crude petroleum, the mining and extraction of oil from oil shale and oil sands, and the production of natural gas and recovery of hydrocarbon liquids. It also includes oil and gas extraction service activities, such as exploration services, prospecting, geological observations, etc.
- Other minerals includes extraction and dredging of industrial sand, sand for construction and gravel, and the mining of clays, refractory clays and kaolin from marine areas. It also includes salt production by evaporation of sea water or other saline waters, and related support services, such as exploration services, prospecting, draining and pumping services.
- Desalination is the process of removing dissolved salts and impurities from saline water—such as seawater, brackish water, or mineralised groundwater—to produce water that meets specific quality standards for human consumption, irrigation, industrial applications, and other uses. This sub-sector is developed in a specific section.
The estimation of the socio-economic performance of the Marine non-living resources sector is primarily based on Structural Business Statistics (SBS) data compiled by Eurostat[4] for the activities listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Marine non-living resources activities based on SBS data (NACE Rev. 2.0 – Statistical classification of economic activities in the European Union. )
| Sector | Sub-sector | Activity |
| Marine non-living resources | Oil and gas |
|
| ||
| Other minerals |
| |
| ||
| Desalination |
|
More methodological details are available on the EU Blue Economy Observatory's dedicated section.
In 2023, the oil and gas subsector employed 48% of the entire sector’s workforce but generated 89% of its entire turnover and 80% of its gross value added (GVA). Extraction of other minerals represented a small fraction of the sector’s employment (9%), turnover (3%) and GVA (4%). Desalination was the second largest subsector, representing 43% of the total workforce, 8% of the sectoral turnover and 16% of its GVA. It should be noted that methodological challenges remain in isolating and quantifying the socio-economic performance of desalination from aggregated and undifferentiated Eurostat’s Structural Business Statistics (SBS)[5]. Nonetheless, estimates of desalination turnover, GVA and employment are reported using complementary data sources (e.g. DesalData[6]). Desalination and other marine extractive activities may have substantial environmental effects, both by disturbing ecosystems and by causing impingement and entrainment of marine organisms, such as fish, algae and larvae. Minimising and managing these environmental impacts is crucial for the blue economy’s sustainability transition.
The image shows an anient salt pan in Mailta with a bucket dilled with salt
Sea salt is salt extracted from seawater through evaporation or thermal processes. While solar evaporation is the most common method for sea salt production, thermal processes (like vacuum evaporation) are also used in some regions or specific applications, especially when the climate is unsuitable for solar methods or for higher-purity industrial uses. With a share of 53%, seawater is the largest source of salt production by evaporation in Europe, followed by salt lakes (33%). Production typically takes place in open basins (natural or man-made), salt marshes or marine salt flats alongside the coastline. The crystallization of salt requires a prolonged period of dry weather, as well as wind, sun and warm temperatures. The necessary climatic conditions to produce solar salt are met in Southern Europe, and the production of sea salt takes place along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coast. After a salt crust has formed, excess salty water is removed prior to harvesting the unrefined salt, which then undergoes additional processing steps, such as washing, drying, and sifting[7].
Image shows a worker at salt extraction La Palma, spain harvesting salt
Sea salt represents about 6% of total salt production in Europe. Salt production from solar evaporation represents approximately 10% of EU salt production in total. For the rest, 60% comes from solution mined salt, and 30% from rock salt mining. It is produced mainly for food processing, de-icing, and specialty retail markets. Despite its many uses, its application in certain industries is limited, mainly because of high volumes of demand and logistical constraints.
The total sea salt production capacity in the EU is estimated not to exceed 5 million tonnes per year. However, weather conditions dictate actual production volumes. In 2023, sea salt production reached approximately 3 million tonnes[8]. To meet EU demand, mainly for de-icing uses, between 1 and 2 tonnes of sea salt are therefore imported each year from non-EU countries[9].
Image showing saline evaporation ponds
A total of 25 large-scale industrial companies are active in sea salt production in the EU. Most companies (11) are from Spain. 5 sea salt production companies are from Italy. Other companies are from Croatia, France, Malta, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Portugal and Slovenia. Several companies operate multiple production sites, both in and outside the EU. In addition, many small-scale, manual harvesting plants are present in the EU. France has the largest number of small-scale producers (e.g. French grey sea salt or sel gris), reaching approximately 600 units. Small-scale production capacity varies considerably. For example, small-scale producers on the French Atlantic coast typically operate between 10 and 100 crystallizers. Their production of coarse salt ranges between 700 kg and 2 tonnes per crystallizer. Production of the more sophisticated, high end blend fleur de sel ranges between 50 kg and 100 kg per crystallizer. This latter production usually accounts for nearly half of their turnover[10]. The sea salt subsector in the EU employs more than 2 200 workers in total, two thirds of which are employed in large-scale industrial facilities. The subsector generated a turnover of EUR 432 million, of which only 11% from small-scale producers[11]. Small-scale salt production generates approximately EUR 60 million in turnover and employs around 850 people[12].
Image shows the Salins d’Aigues-Mortes, Camargue, France with a pink colour
Sea salt production sites in the EU are present in the following regions (selection)[13]:
- Aveiro, Portugal – The coastal geography and mild Atlantic climate of this area favour traditional sea‑salt harvesting that has been practised for generations.
- Camargue, France – Known for its pink sea salt, the colour derives from the minerals and algae that thrive in the local salt pans.
- Gozo, Malta – The Salina Salt Pans near the village of Xwejni are carved into the coastal rock; seawater evaporates in these historic pans, leaving the salt behind.
- Marguerita di Savoy, Italy – Situated in Apulia, this region boasts extensive salt flats where seawater evaporates to form crystalline salt.
Image illustrates the Salinas de Torrevieja, Spain with theis typical pink colour
In addition, solar salt production in the EU also originates from the following salt lakes[14]:
- Bratislava Salt Cave, Slovakia – A natural underground chamber in the capital, its walls are rich in salt deposits and the site is chiefly used for therapeutic purposes rather than commercial mining.
- Salinas de Torrevieja, Spain – Located in Alicante province, these salt flats acquire a vivid pink hue from halophilic microorganisms and support local salt extraction.
- Laguna de la Mata, Spain – Near Torrevieja on the Costa Blanca, this lagoon is another Spanish site where solar evaporation yields salt.
- Lake Neusiedl (Neusiedler See), Austria/Hungary – A shallow steppe lake on the border that experiences frequent water‑level changes, influencing its salinity and occasional salt harvesting.
- Lake Trasimeno, Italy – Although a freshwater lake, its shallow depth gives it a higher than usual salt content, distinguishing it from typical freshwater bodies.
The Salinas de Fuencaliente (Salt fields of Fuencaliente) in the south of the island of La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain. Flor de Sal is harvested as sea water is trapped between stone and mud.
Sea salt production is typically low in energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions, especially if the evaporation process is driven by sun and wind. However, certain components of the production process (especially pumping, maintenance, harvesting, and post-processing like washing and drying) can be energy-intensive, depending on technology and scale, let alone if thermal dryers are used. In addition to energy costs, prospects for market growth are constrained by several factors, such as transportation costs, and the limited availability of suitable production sites near the coast.
Recent studies and industry reports indicate that significant efficiency improvements can be achieved in sea-salt production through better pond design, enhanced insulation, advanced monitoring and hybrid solar systems. These measures can lead to lower water use (of up to 20‑25 m³ per tons of salt, according to a study)[15], stable production under variable climate conditions, and reduced environmental impacts.
Extraction of other minerals
The extraction of minerals from EU seas and seabed is a significant industry, with various activities taking place across the region. The market can be broadly segmented into three main categories: gravel and sand pits, mining of clays, and deep seabed mining for other minerals.
Image shows colored textured sand with varying granule sizes found in an outdoor quarry post mining
- Gravel and Sand Pits: The extraction of gravel and sand from EU seas is a well-established industry, with many Member States having long histories of offshore aggregate extraction. Most of these operations take place in shallow waters, typically less than 20 meters deep, and are used to supply the construction industry with materials for building and infrastructure projects. On average, nearly 60 million tonnes (Mt) of marine aggregates are extracted from the sea each year, providing construction material and a strategic resource for large‑scale coastal defence and beach‑replenishment projects. In 2024, a total of 55.2 Mt of marine aggregates were extracted or dredged in the EU. The Netherlands was by far the largest producer, with 25 Mt (45.3%), followed by Germany (11 Mt, 20%), Denmark (7.3 Mt, 13%) and Belgium (6.9Mt, 12.5%), with the North Sea being a major hub for these activities.
- Mining of Clays: The mining of clays from EU seas is a smaller but still significant industry, with several Member States extracting clays for use in the ceramics, paper, and construction industries. These operations often take place in shallower waters, typically less than 50 meters deep, and are concentrated in areas with suitable geological formations. France and Germany are among the main producers of offshore clays in the EU. The distribution of clay minerals is characterized by an abundance of primary clay minerals in the northern North Sea, indicating that physical erosion under cold climatic conditions is the prevailing source. The high concentration of kaolinite in the south-western North Sea, on the other hand, indicates eroded rocks conveyed seawards primarily by riverine or coastal processes.
Deep Seabed Mining: Deep seabed mining for other minerals is a relatively new industry, with several companies exploring the potential for extracting minerals such as copper, zinc, gold, and rare earth elements from the deep seabed. These operations typically take place at much greater depths, often exceeding 1 000 meters, and require specialized equipment and technologies.
Beyond economic efficiency and raw material security-of-supply considerations, deep seabed mining raises significant environmental and social concerns, including the potential impacts on marine ecosystems, the risk of biodiversity loss, pollution, methane emissions, habitat destruction and effects on fisheries.
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Until robust scientific evidence is found to demonstrate that deep seabed mining activities will not harm marine biodiversity or ecosystem health, the Commission has called for a ban on deep-sea mining. The Commission’s position on deep-sea mining is spelled out in the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 and in the International Ocean Governance Agenda. As specified in the 2022 Joint Communication ‘Setting the course for a sustainable blue planet — Joint Communication on the EU’s International Ocean Governance agenda', the Commission will continue to advocate for prohibiting deep-sea mining until:
- Scientific gaps are properly filled,
- It can be demonstrated that no harmful effects arise from mining and,
- As required under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the necessary provisions in the exploitation regulations for the effective protection of the marine environment are in place.
This position is also reflected in Recital 18 of the regulation (EU) 2024/1252 on critical raw materials: ‘In line with the precautionary principle, the Commission should not recognise deep sea mining projects as Strategic Projects before the effects of deep-sea mining on the marine environment, biodiversity and human activities are sufficiently researched, the risks are understood and technologies and operational practices are capable of demonstrating that the environment is not seriously harmed.’
Concurrently, the European Parliament’s stance on deep-seabed mining is in favour of an international moratorium. In line with this precautionary principle, the Parliament urged Member States to ensure that any attempts to circumvent ISA’s jurisdiction are rejected, in line with UNCLOS obligations.
The importance of this position was reaffirmed by the Presidency of the Council of the EU on the occasion of the Ocean Pact side event at the 2025 UN Ocean Conference in June 2025.
To date, seven EU Member States (Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden) and numerous non‑EU countries, NGOs (e.g., IUCN), financial institutions, and corporations have called for a precautionary pause or total ban on deep‑sea mining. The UN Environment Programme’s Finance Initiative (UNEP-FI) warns that financing such activities cannot meet Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles, urging reliance on recycling, circular‑economy measures, material substitutes and demand‑reduction policies. In line with this approach, the European Investment Bank (EIB) excludes the “extraction of mineral deposits from the deep sea” from the list of activities that can be financed.
Outside the EU, recent activity in deep‑sea mining can be summarized as follows:
- By mid‑2025 the International Seabed Authority (ISA) had issued 31 active 15‑year exploration licences covering polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides and cobalt‑rich ferromanganese crusts to 22 contractors from both state and private sectors, including island nations, India and China.
- In 2024, Norway decided to open 280 000 km² of its Arctic continental shelf to mineral exploration. But following protests and intense budget negotiations, in December 2025 the government decided to halt the issuance of any deep-sea mining licences until at least the end of 2029 and to cut funding for environmental mapping of seabed minerals.
- The “two‑year rule” invoked by Nauru in 2021 permits any ISA contractor to lodge an exploration or exploitation request, increasing pressure on the ISA to clarify how such applications will be processed.
In 2025 India signed a new ISA exploration contract for polymetallic sulphides on the Carlsberg Ridge, signalling renewed interest in massive seafloor sulphide deposits. Concurrently, the United States has moved to accelerate seabed‑mining authorisation through domestic legislation: The Metals Company (TMC) has launched a combined exploration‑and‑recovery application under the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act, while still operating under existing ISA exploration contracts sponsored by Nauru and Tonga.
These recent developments illustrate the growing tension between unilateral national approaches to accessing deep‑sea mineral resources and multilateral regulation centred on the ISA.
The EU stance cited above—calling for improved understanding and certainty about the impacts before any further deep‑sea activities are carried out—extends beyond EU waters; it represents the Union’s broader vision for the whole ocean, as outlined in the International Ocean Governance Agenda.
In this connection, the EU co-funded ARCTICMINER project is assessing how deep‑sea mining on the Norwegian continental shelf complies with international obligations under the UNCLOS and the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement. The project seeks to reconcile coastal states’ rights with those of the international community and to determine whether recent legal developments necessitate adjustments to state practices.
Another EU co-funded project, OCEAN‑MINeD project is analysing how the ocean’s dynamics change when mineral extraction reaches its depths. While social research examines the political and environmental facets of deep‑sea mining, OCEAN‑MINeD addresses a vital gap by probing the ocean’s complex dimensions. The project is set to study resource management, technology and offshore operations.
In 2023, the GVA generated by the sector amounted to EUR 3.9 billion, well below EUR 10.7 billion the year earlier (2022). This decrease marked a significant shift from the exceptional increase registered between 2021 and 2022. This latter was the result of short-term geo-political considerations following Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine, which led to a number of installations designated for decommissioning to resume operation, and increase the security of energy supply in the EU[5]. In 2023, the overall performance of the sector resumed its decade-long downward trends, with turnover shrinking to EUR 16.4 billion (-44% from 2022) and operating profits decreasing to EUR 2.6 billion (-72%), approaching the same level registered in 2020. In terms of employment, the sector employed 16 424 persons in 2023, i.e. the lowest value on record since 2009 with more than 500 job losses from 2022. The average personnel costs remained relatively stable, with only a 1.7% increase compared to 2022 (Figure 2a, 2b).
Driven by the oil and gas decline, the sector’s turnover has been falling sharply between 2012 and 2017, to then fluctuate between EUR 14 billion and EUR 16 billion, except for the decrease observed during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and the extraordinary increase in 2022 to secure energy supply further to Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine. In 2023, the sector’s workforce was less than 44% of its equivalent in 2009, and turnover was approximately one fourth of the highest value it reached in 2012. In 2023, the Marine non-living resources sector accounted for 0.3% of the jobs, 1.5% of the GVA and 2% of the profits of the entire EU Blue Economy.
Spain, Denmark, the Netherlands, Italy and Romania (in this order) recorded the highest employment in the marine non-living resources sector, with 83% of the sectoral workforce. Denmark and the Netherlands together produced by far the largest share of the sector’s GVA (67%), followed by Italy (14%) and Spain (12%). (Figure 2).
Employment: The EU Marine non-living resources sector employed less than 16 500 persons in 2023, compared to nearly 37 thousand in 2009. The industry was among the most affected by the transition to sustainability in the energy sector, hence the strong decline in the workforce in line with global trends. 43% of the sector’s workforce was employed in desalination, followed by 29% in support activities for the oil and gas industry, 13% in the extraction of natural gas, and 6% in oil extraction.
Gross value added: 39% of the sector’s GVA was generated by the oil extractive industry (EUR 1.5 billion in 2023), followed by the extraction of natural gas (21%, or EUR 824 million in 2023). Oil and gas support activities contributed another 20% to the sector’s GVA, slightly higher than the value added contribution from desalination (EUR 623 million, or 16%) in 2023.
The overall market performance of the marine non-living resources sector over the past few years can be explained by several factors, such as the implications of relevant EU policies and regulations, the impact of exogenous shocks (e.g. COVID-19, conflicts, trade disruptions, etc.), and the effects of changes in energy prices, production costs and tariffs on demand and productivity of the EU marine extractive industry. These factors may have affected its different sub-sectors in different ways.
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Oil extraction: Despite the growing role of gas and the ongoing transition to renewable sources, oil continues to play an instrumental role in the EU energy economy, particularly in sectors such as transport, the petrochemical industry and port logistics chains. However, structural data and projections by official bodies confirm a sustained decline in the weight of crude oil within the European energy system.
Crude oil production in the EU reached an all-time low in 2023: 15.5 million tonnes (Mt), compared to a peak of 41.7 Mt in 2004, representing a cumulative fall of nearly 63%[16]. Italy (4.2 Mt), Denmark (2.9 Mt) and Romania (2.9 Mt) account for most of the production, mainly in offshore fields. Similar production levels were registered in 2024, with a 3.2% increase in production by Italy, a 1.2% increase by Denmark, and a 4.4% decrease by Romania (see Figure 3).
The overall declining trend is due to both resource depletion and a reduction in exploratory investment, in line with climate targets and environmental, social and governance (ESG) policies. Crude oil production in the EU is expected to continue declining, focusing on extending the life of mature fields, without significant new offshore developments planned for the 2025–2028 period[17].
The EU's energy dependence on oil and petroleum products, natural gas and solid fossil fuels remained high in 2024, at approximately 67%. In 2024, the shares of different energy sources in the gross available energy varied considerably among EU countries:
- petroleum products in available energy was highest in Cyprus (86%), Malta (85%) and Luxembourg (60%)
- natural gas was a significant energy source in Italy (36%), the Netherlands (31%), Hungary and Ireland (both 29%)
- solid fuels was highest in Estonia (50%), Poland (34%) and Czechia (26%)
- renewables was highest in Sweden (48%), Latvia (46%) and Denmark (43%)
- nuclear energy accounted for 40% of energy available in France, Slovakia (30%) and Sweden (26%).
The EU produced 43% of its own energy, while 57% was imported [18].
Crude oil imports amounted to 471.5 Mt (-1.7% compared to 2022), well below the pre-pandemic level (507.2 Mt in 2019). The main suppliers were the United States (67.2 Mt), Norway (65.6 Mt), Kazakhstan (44.6 Mt) and Iraq (35.8 Mt). Imports of oil and petroleum products from Russia decreased by 83.7%[19].
The war in Ukraine and the launch of the REPowerEU plan in 2022 significantly altered the pattern of crude oil imports in the European Union by reducing its dependency on Russian fossil fuels. Purchases from Russia fell by 24.6 Mt in 2022 and by 74.1 Mt in 2023. The decrease of crude oil import from Russia was compensated by increased imports from the United States (+18.9 Mt), Norway (+11.5 Mt) and Kazakhstan (+8.4 Mt). In recent years imports from Norway are gradually increasing. In 2023, they increased by 21.3% compared with the previous year. Imports of crude oil from the USA were historically almost irrelevant but have been increasing sharply in the last few years. They jumped 33.6% in 2020, another 28.5% in 2022 and again by 39.1% in 2023 reaching the record high and making this country the top provider to the EU[20]. This diversification has reinforced the role of transatlantic and Mediterranean maritime routes, with logistical impacts on key ports such as Rotterdam, Trieste, Marseille and Algeciras[21].
Gas extraction: Since 2021, gas demand in the EU has decreased by around 15% due to the advance of renewables, electrification of residential heating, and improvements in energy efficiency. Despite this structural decline, gas is still needed as a flexible back-up source for power generation and as an indispensable input in industrial sectors that are difficult to decarbonise, such as chemicals, metallurgy, and cement[22]. In 2025, natural gas continues to play a key role in the European energy system, albeit in a scenario marked by a transition to more sustainable sources.
Natural gas reserves in the EU are estimated at 694 billion cubic metres (bcm). 90% of these reserves are held by six Member States (Figure 4): the Netherlands (25%), followed by Romania (21.2%), Poland (15.4%), Germany (10.2%), Italy (8.9%), and Denmark (8.3%)[23].
In 2024, the EU produced 37.2 bcm of natural gas, i.e. 38% of what was produced a decade earlier (2015, 97.8 bcm). Main producers were the Netherlands (10 bcm, 26.9%), Romania (9.3 bcm, 24.9%), Poland (5.1 bcm, 13.8%), Germany (4.2 bcm, 11.3%) and Italy (2.6 bcm, 7%)[24].
With domestic gas reserves declining, imports have rapidly increased in recent years, leading to higher dependency and a pressing need to ensure supply security.
The EU remains highly dependent on gas imports, with roughly 88 % of its gas supply in 2024 sourced through four principal pipeline corridors and a series of LNG terminals:
- Eastern corridors – pipelines that transport gas from Russia via Belarus, Ukraine and Turkey.
- North Sea corridors – routes delivering gas from Norway and the United Kingdom.
- Southern corridors – pipelines connecting the EU with supplies from the Caspian Sea, notably Azerbaijan.
- North‑African corridors – infrastructure bringing gas from Algeria, Tunisia and Libya.
In addition, the EU currently operates about 33 large‑scale LNG import terminals, located on both onshore and offshore sites along its coastlines[25].
In August 2024, Eni announced the beginning of gas production from the Argo Cassiopeia field in the Strait of Sicily. With reserves estimated in the range of 10 bcm of gas, gas extraction from the Argo Cassiopeia field is expected to reach 1.5 bcm per year. The installation aims to achieve carbon neutrality for Scope 1 and 2 emissions with renewable solar energy[26].
The redesign of the European gas supply system represents one of the most significant structural transformations in the post-2022 period. Following the invasion of Ukraine and the political commitment to gradually reduce dependence on Russian gas, the EU has strengthened its gas infrastructure through strategic projects supported, among others, by the Connecting Europe Facility instrument[27]. Four alternative routes to the Ukrainian transit corridor – the Baltic Pipe, the Southern Gas Corridor (SGC) extension, the Trans‑Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) second‑stage expansion, and the Euro‑Baltic Interconnector – have been commissioned to ensure the continent’s energy supply security[28].
Gas storage continues to play a crucial role in absorbing market shocks, mitigating seasonal demand fluctuations, and guaranteeing supply during winter-peak consumption periods. In October 2023, total EU gas storage reached a level of 96% of total capacity, also thanks to the Demand Reduction Regulation, which has been exceeded by most Member States through voluntary curtailment measures[29].
Interactions with other sectors
- Maritime transport and ports: These sectors play a key support role for the oil and gas industry. Not only are they responsible for the logistics of the sector, but they also provide maintenance, and will play a main role in decommissioning stages, requiring greater shore-based facilities. Oil and gas also impact these sectors by establishing exclusion safety zones around their infrastructure and activity zones, impacting transport routes. Also, LNG serves as a transition fuel for vessels, cleaner than diesel and meeting current IMO emission standards. While not a definitive solution, it is helping alleviate carbon emissions while green fuels like e-methanol or e-ammonia reach technological and availability levels that allow their use for full-scale commercial operations.
- Pipelines and cables: the oil and gas industry is one of the main users of pipeline infrastructure. New extractive infrastructure and activities, also for other non-living resources, must consider existing pipelines and cables and ensure that they are not affected.
- Fishing: the extraction of non-living resources has a major impact on fishing activities. During operations and infrastructure decommissioning, fishing vessels must respect at minimum a 500 metre safety zone, with additional areas during the installation of pipelines. Also, operation activities can discharge contaminants in ecosystems, like crude or contaminated water, and the effect on noise and vibration is still under study.
- Aquaculture: In spaces with available resources for both sectors, both activities are excluded. Co-location might be a future opportunity for these spaces, although technological and legal barriers must be first addressed, especially in the case of decommissioned structures.
- Offshore energy: While both sectors are competing for suitable space, there is potential for the installation of offshore energies infrastructure in decommissioned structures, and possible synergies with operating ones, providing access to the electrical grid, and maintenance/logistical support.
- Conservation: The sector poses high ecological risks due to possible oil spills, ecological interactions during exploration, and noise pollution. Nevertheless, there is potential to provide protected spaces around the infrastructure, especially decommissioned structures, that can act as artificial reefs.
- Research and innovation: the sector is highly dependent upon new technologies that allow further exploitation of existing resources under controlled operational costs. It is estimated that around 50% of newly discovered deposits are in the deep-water (between 400 and 1,500 metres) and ultra-deep-water (more than 1,500 metres) range.
- Infrastructure and robotics: Robotics have high potential in the fields of exploitation and maintenance. Oil and gas deposits are exploring the development of subsea completion systems, deployed in the seabed, and managed by underwater robots. These systems are particularly beneficial for deep-water exploitation, as they reduce the need for offshore infrastructure, minimising environmental impacts and costs. Projects like the Chaintest, which received EU funding under the SME-FP6 programme, employ robots to reduce operational costs, such as one crawling along the chains anchoring platforms to the seabed, performing inspection and maintenance activities. Robotics also play a key part in the possible advance of seabed mining, providing selective and non-intrusive exploitation techniques. As an example of this, the EU funded ROBUST project advanced the development of an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle that can hover over the seabed, produce 3-D maps, and analyse resources, using laser technology.